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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Practical arguments</span></span>
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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Argument" title="Argument">Argument</a></div>
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<p><b>Practical arguments</b> are a <a href="Logic" title="Logic">logical</a> structure used to determine the validity or dependencies of a claim made in natural-language <a href="Argument" title="Argument">arguments</a>.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview...">Overview...</h2></div>
<p>An <i>argument</i> can be thought of as two or more contradicting <a href="Tree_structure" title="Tree structure">tree structures</a>.
</p>
<ul><li>The <a href="Root_node" class="mw-redirect" title="Root node">root</a> of each tree is a <i>claim</i>: a belief supported by information.</li>
<li>The root branches out to <a href="Node_(computer_science)" title="Node (computer science)">nodes</a> that are <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ground" class="extiw external" title="wikt:ground">grounds</a></i>: supporting information.</li>
<li>The <a href="Edge_(graph_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Edge (graph theory)">edges</a> connecting them are <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/warrant#Transitive_verb" class="extiw external" title="wikt:warrant"> warrants</a></i>: rules or principles.</li>
<li>Claims, grounds and warrants are often not known for certain, so they are presented with a <i><a href="Grammatical_modifier" title="Grammatical modifier">qualifier</a></i> to indicate their probability.</li>
<li>When a ground is disputable it is a <i>sub claim</i>; in this way the tree can grow to be quite large.</li></ul>
<p>The object of a discussion is often to resolve a difference of opinion. This requires common grounds from which to logically convince one's opponent that one's claim is better supported and that the opponent's claim is supported by false grounds and or warrants (see <a href="Occam's_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a>). If one has no grounds or warrants to support one's claim, then one has no argument, just a belief/claim, perhaps an inaccurate one.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Example_1">Example 1</h2></div>
<ul><li><i>Claim</i>: Cats are less intelligent than dogs.</li>
<li><i>Ground</i>: Cats cannot learn to do tricks as well as dogs do.</li>
<li><i>Warrant</i>: The ability to learn tricks is a mark of intelligence.</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Example_2">Example 2</h2></div>
<dl><dd>Where: C=claim, W=warrant, G=ground, and Q=qualifier</dd></dl>
<ul><li>C: Humans can't fly.
<ul><li>Q: In a gravity field without assistance or modification</li>
<li>W1: Because it defies the laws of Newtonian physics it can not be done.
<ul><li>Q: Fact</li></ul></li>
<li>G1: It defies the laws of Newtonian physics.
<ul><li>Q: Disputable fact</li></ul></li>
<li>W1.1: Because Newtonian physics applies it would defy the laws of Newtonian physics.
<ul><li>Q: Fact</li></ul></li>
<li>G1.1: Newtonian physics apply to all super quantum systems including people
<ul><li>Q: Fact</li></ul></li>
<li>W1.2: Because there is no print record it is highly improbable.
<ul><li>Q: Highly improbable</li></ul></li>
<li>G1.2: There is no print record of any reputable person claiming such a thing.
<ul><li>Q: Fact</li></ul></li>
<li>W2: Because no one has ever flown, it is highly improbable.
<ul><li>Q: Highly improbable</li></ul></li>
<li>G2: No one has ever flown.
<ul><li>Q: Disputable fact</li></ul></li>
<li>W2.1: Because there is no print record it is highly improbable.
<ul><li>Q: Highly improbable</li></ul></li>
<li>G2.1: There is no print record of any reputable person claiming such a thing.
<ul><li>Q: Fact</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div>
<ul><li><a href="Argument_map" title="Argument map">Argument map</a></li>
<li><a href="Argumentation_framework" title="Argumentation framework">Argumentation framework</a></li>
<li><a href="Logical_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical argument">Logical argument</a></li>
<li><a href="Toulmin_model_of_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Toulmin model of argument">Toulmin model of argument</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>
<ul><li>Printed:
<ul><li><i>Writing Arguments</i> by John D. Ramage</li>
<li><i><a href="The_Craft_of_Research" title="The Craft of Research">The Craft of Research</a></i> by <a href="Wayne_C._Booth" title="Wayne C. Booth">Wayne C. Booth</a>, <a href="Gregory_G._Colomb" title="Gregory G. Colomb">Gregory G. Colomb</a>, & <a href="Joseph_M._Williams" title="Joseph M. Williams">Joseph M. Williams</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Online
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060901235951/http://warren.ucsd.edu/academiclife/warren_writing/writing_resources/about_arg.php">About Argumentation by University of California</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070224160340/http://www.winthrop.edu/wcenter/handoutsnew.htm">Argumentation by Winthrop University</a></li></ul></li></ul></div><!--htdig_noindex--><div><div class="zim-footer">
This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-04-18" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Practical_arguments&oldid=1286192352">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.
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